Berridge, K., & Robinson, T. (2003) | References

What This Research Found

Kent Berridge and Terry Robinson's landmark review established one of the most consequential distinctions in modern neuroscience: that reward is not a single phenomenon but comprises separable psychological and neural components. Published in Trends in Neurosciences and cited over 4,000 times, this paper fundamentally changed how we understand motivation, pleasure, and the neural machinery of desire.

The wanting/liking distinction: The core finding is that 'wanting' a reward and 'liking' a reward are dissociable—they can occur independently and are mediated by different brain systems. 'Wanting' refers to incentive salience: the motivational pull that makes stimuli attractive and worth pursuing. 'Liking' refers to hedonic impact: the actual pleasure experienced when consuming or obtaining the reward. Crucially, Berridge demonstrated that you can intensely want something you don't particularly like (as in addiction), or find something pleasurable without being motivated to pursue it (as in some forms of anhedonia).

Dopamine encodes motivation, not pleasure: Perhaps the most counterintuitive finding was that dopamine—long called the 'pleasure chemical'—does not actually produce pleasure. Animals with their dopamine systems destroyed can still show normal hedonic reactions to sweet tastes placed directly on their tongues; they simply lose the motivation to pursue those rewards. Dopamine creates the 'wanting'—the anticipation, the craving, the urge to seek. The actual pleasure of reward consumption is mediated by other systems.

The opioid system produces 'liking': The hedonic pleasure of rewards—the warmth of satisfaction, the contentment of arrival—is mediated primarily by endogenous opioids and related neurotransmission in specific 'hedonic hotspots' within the nucleus accumbens and other structures. This explains why opioid drugs produce such intense pleasure and why opioid withdrawal creates such dysphoria: they directly modulate the brain's capacity to experience reward as pleasurable.

The mesolimbic pathway and incentive salience: The mesolimbic pathway—connecting the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the nucleus accumbens—is the primary circuit for transforming ordinary stimuli into powerfully attractive incentive cues. When dopamine floods this pathway, stimuli associated with reward become imbued with 'incentive salience': they grab attention, trigger approach, and create the subjective experience of wanting. This process can become sensitised by drugs, stress, or developmental experiences, creating increasingly powerful wanting responses to reward-associated cues.

Addiction as wanting without liking: This framework explains the paradox of addiction: why do addicts desperately pursue substances that no longer give them pleasure? The answer is that their dopamine 'wanting' system has become sensitised—it responds more and more intensely to drug-associated cues—while their opioid 'liking' system shows tolerance, producing less and less pleasure from the drug itself. The addict experiences overwhelming wanting with diminishing liking, trapped in compulsive pursuit of a reward that no longer rewards.

Why This Matters for Survivors

If you experienced narcissistic abuse, Berridge's research illuminates something you likely sensed but couldn't explain: why the narcissist's pursuit of validation seemed so desperate yet so unsatisfying, and why your own pull toward them operated with compulsion-like intensity.

The narcissist's endless hunger has a neurobiological basis. Their intense pursuit of narcissistic supply—admiration, attention, validation—reflects a dopamine 'wanting' system that fires relentlessly. The mesolimbic pathway activates powerfully to any cue suggesting possible validation. But the opioid 'liking' system, likely miscalibrated by inconsistent early attachment, cannot convert that validation into lasting satisfaction. They want with crushing intensity but cannot rest in 'enough.' This is not greed in the moral sense; it is a reward architecture built for pursuit but not for peace. Understanding this, you can finally stop wondering what you could have done to satisfy them. Nothing would have been enough because their 'enough' circuitry is broken.

Your own compulsion to return makes neurobiological sense. The wanting/liking dissociation explains why you may have found yourself pulled toward someone who no longer—or never—made you feel genuinely good. Intermittent reinforcement creates powerful dopamine associations: cues related to the narcissist trigger intense wanting even when actual contact brings pain rather than pleasure. You 'wanted' them without 'liking' them, and this felt like madness because conscious evaluation couldn't override subcortical drive. You weren't weak or foolish; your dopamine system was doing exactly what Berridge's research predicts.

Trauma bonds operate through these circuits. The cycle of abuse and reconciliation that characterises narcissistic relationships hijacks the reward system at its most fundamental level. The unpredictable arrival of kindness after cruelty creates massive dopamine prediction errors—'better than expected' signals that sensitise wanting. Meanwhile, the actual pleasure of reconciliation may be genuine but transient, failing to build the stable opioid-mediated satisfaction of healthy attachment. You become addicted to the chase while the hug never truly satisfies.

Understanding these mechanisms supports recovery. Knowing that your pull toward the narcissist reflects dopamine-driven incentive salience—not accurate evaluation of the relationship's worth—can help you trust your decision to leave even when wanting screams for return. The craving will diminish as cues are no longer reinforced; the 'liking' system can gradually recalibrate through healthy relationships. Recovery is not about willpower overcoming desire; it's about giving your reward system the consistent input it needs to develop new associations.

Clinical Implications

For psychiatrists, psychologists, and trauma-informed healthcare providers, Berridge's framework has direct implications for understanding both narcissistic personality organisation and the survivors who present with traumatic bonding.

Assessment should distinguish wanting from liking. Clients may report craving relationships or achievements while simultaneously acknowledging that obtaining them provides little pleasure. This wanting/liking dissociation is diagnostically significant: it suggests reward system dysfunction rather than simple behavioural patterns. In survivors of narcissistic abuse, intense wanting for the abuser combined with recognition that the relationship caused pain indicates traumatic bonding operating through incentive salience mechanisms. In narcissistic patients, endless pursuit of validation combined with rapid hedonic decay suggests the same fundamental dissociation.

Insight alone cannot override subcortical wanting. Clinicians should recognise that clients may intellectually understand their compulsive pursuit is harmful while remaining unable to stop. Berridge's research explains why: incentive salience operates below conscious control, in mesolimbic circuits that are not directly accessible to verbal insight. Telling a client to 'just stop' wanting the narcissist is as ineffective as telling an addict to just stop wanting drugs. Treatment must address the reward system directly, not merely provide rational arguments against pursuit.

The therapeutic relationship engages these same systems. Consistent, attuned therapeutic relationships may gradually provide the input the 'liking' system needs to calibrate toward ordinary connection. The therapist becomes a source of modest, reliable opioid-mediated reward—not the intense dopamine hits of unpredictable reinforcement but the steady warmth of consistent presence. Over time, this may build the client's capacity to experience satisfaction from ordinary relationships, addressing the fundamental 'liking' deficit. This requires long-term treatment; the system took years to miscalibrate and cannot be rewired quickly.

Pharmacological approaches may target the wanting/liking imbalance directly. For treatment-resistant cases, medications that modulate dopamine sensitivity (reducing excessive wanting) or enhance opioid function (increasing capacity for liking) may be worth considering. Research into naltrexone, buprenorphine, and dopamine-modulating agents continues. The goal is not to eliminate reward-seeking but to rebalance wanting and liking toward a functional ratio where pursuit can end in satisfaction.

Narcissistic validation-seeking shows addiction-like neurobiology. Clinicians treating NPD should recognise that the insatiable quality of narcissistic supply-seeking likely reflects genuine reward system dysfunction rather than wilful selfishness. The narcissist's mesolimbic pathway shows heightened activation to self-relevant feedback; their wanting for validation may be as compulsive as any substance craving. This does not excuse harmful behaviour but reframes it: treatment is attempting to rewire addiction circuitry in someone whose 'drug' is freely available everywhere. Expect dropout rates comparable to addiction treatment; expect relapse when environmental validation sources become available.

Broader Implications

Berridge's parsing of reward illuminates patterns that extend far beyond individual therapy rooms, shaping families, organisations, and social systems.

The Intergenerational Transmission of Reward Dysfunction

The wanting/liking balance develops during early attachment experiences. A parent whose own reward system is miscalibrated—who cannot rest in ordinary connection, who requires intense stimulation to experience pleasure—cannot provide the consistent input the child's opioid system needs to develop. The parent's wanting-driven pursuit of narcissistic supply means the child receives intermittent reinforcement: sometimes flooded with attention when the parent needs supply, sometimes neglected when other sources are available. This programmes the child's dopamine system for powerful wanting while failing to build opioid-mediated capacity for liking. The dysfunction transmits not genetically but experientially, one reward system calibrating the next. Intergenerational trauma includes intergenerational reward dysfunction.

Relationship Patterns and the Pursuit of Intensity

Adults whose reward systems developed through intermittent reinforcement often seek relationship intensity rather than relationship stability. The dopamine system, sensitised to unpredictable reward, finds predictable affection insufficiently stimulating. These adults may serial date, pursue dramatic relationships, or create conflict in stable partnerships—unconsciously seeking the dopamine hits their system was calibrated for. Meanwhile, they may feel puzzled by their inability to be satisfied in relationships that look healthy from outside. Understanding this as wanting/liking dissociation rather than character flaw allows for targeted intervention: building the capacity for liking through sustained, non-dramatic connection.

Workplace Dynamics and Validation-Driven Leadership

Narcissistic leaders often create organisational cultures that mirror their own reward dysfunction. They may demand intensity and drama, devalue consistent performers, and create intermittent reinforcement environments for subordinates. The organisation begins operating on wanting-driven pursuit rather than liking-based satisfaction. Employees become addicted to winning the leader's approval without ever being able to rest in consistent recognition. Understanding these dynamics as projections of the leader's reward architecture helps organisations design systems that don't inadvertently replicate narcissistic dysfunction—for example, ensuring that recognition is consistent and predictable rather than dramatic and intermittent.

Social Media and Mass Reward System Exploitation

Social media platforms have, perhaps inadvertently, designed perfect wanting machines. Variable reinforcement schedules (sometimes your post goes viral, usually it doesn't) create powerful dopamine-driven checking behaviours. The 'like' provides a tiny opioid hit that fades almost immediately, triggering renewed wanting. Users report addiction-like symptoms: compulsive use despite negative consequences, inability to stop checking, tolerance requiring more and more engagement to achieve the same reward. Berridge's framework explains this as mass exploitation of wanting/liking dissociation. Policy approaches should consider that social media addiction operates through the same neural machinery as gambling or drug addiction.

Consumerism and the Economy of Wanting

Modern consumer capitalism may be understood as an economy optimised for wanting rather than liking. Advertising creates powerful incentive salience around products; obtaining them provides transient pleasure that fades rapidly, triggering renewed wanting for the next purchase. This is not an accident but a feature: sustainable consumer spending requires that purchases never truly satisfy. Berridge's framework suggests that economic models assuming rational pursuit of utility miss the wanting/liking distinction. Consumers can want products they know won't satisfy them, purchase compulsively despite past disappointment, and find their hedonic treadmill accelerating even as consumption increases.

Public Health and the Prevention of Reward Dysfunction

If the wanting/liking balance is calibrated by early experience, prevention becomes paramount. Public health approaches might focus on ensuring consistent early caregiving—not through judgement of parents but through support systems that reduce parental stress and increase capacity for attunement. Parental leave policies, accessible childcare, early intervention for at-risk families, and reduction of family poverty all serve to create the conditions where children's reward systems can develop normal wanting/liking balance. The return on investment may be enormous: adults with calibrated reward systems are less likely to develop addiction, narcissistic pathology, or the relationship dysfunction that perpetuates intergenerational transmission.

Limitations and Considerations

Translation from animal models has limits. Much of Berridge's foundational work was conducted on rodents, using techniques like measuring taste reactivity responses to map hedonic versus motivational reactions. Human reward systems add layers of cognitive complexity—we can want things we've never experienced, create abstract representations of reward, and pursue goals with no direct sensory component. The basic wanting/liking distinction appears to hold in humans, but its expression is more complex than animal models suggest.

Individual differences are substantial. Not everyone with early intermittent reinforcement develops the same reward phenotype. Genetics affecting dopamine and opioid systems, temperament, specific experiences, and compensatory relationships all influence outcomes. The wanting/liking framework provides a general architecture for understanding reward dysfunction, not a deterministic prediction of individual presentation.

The relationship between wanting and conscious desire is unclear. Berridge argues that wanting (incentive salience) can operate without conscious awareness—you can want something without knowing you want it. This is theoretically important but difficult to verify in humans. Clinicians should be cautious about attributing unconscious wanting to clients based on behaviour alone; the relationship between implicit motivation and explicit desire remains an active area of research.

Pharmacological implications remain experimental. While the wanting/liking framework suggests potential drug targets, clinical applications for conditions like narcissism or traumatic bonding are not yet established. Medications that modulate dopamine or opioid systems have significant side effects and addiction potential of their own. The framework provides theoretical grounding for future research rather than immediate clinical protocols.

How This Research Is Used in the Book

Berridge's wanting/liking distinction appears at crucial points in Narcissus and the Child to explain the neurochemistry of narcissistic validation-seeking and traumatic bonding.

In Chapter 9: Brain Chemistry of Misery, the research establishes that dopamine encodes motivation rather than pleasure:

"The mesolimbic pathway—the Desire Road connecting the VTA to the nucleus accumbens—shows strengthened connectivity in narcissistic individuals during anticipation of self-relevant feedback. The mere possibility of praise or criticism activates strong dopaminergic signalling, creating the intense anticipation and anxiety around evaluation that characterises NPD."

This citation grounds the book's explanation of why narcissists are so hypervigilant to evaluation: their wanting system is exquisitely sensitised to any cue suggesting possible validation, creating constant arousal around social feedback.

In Chapter 10: Building the Maze, the wanting/liking distinction becomes central to understanding narcissistic development:

"Dopamine does not encode pleasure, but motivation—the drive to pursue rewards. The distinction matters: we can find something pleasurable without being motivated to seek it (as in anhedonia), or we can be intensely motivated to seek something that no longer provides pleasure (as in addiction). Dopamine drives the seeking, not the satisfaction."

The chapter elaborates this distinction to explain the narcissist's characteristic inability to be satisfied:

"The Highway (VTA to NAc): This pathway generates 'wanting'—the motivational energy that makes stimuli attractive and worth pursuing. When dopamine floods the nucleus accumbens, we feel driven to seek. Animals with depleted NAc dopamine can still enjoy rewards delivered directly to them, but they lack the motivation to pursue those rewards."

And later, explaining the dissociation between pursuit and satisfaction:

"There is a crucial distinction hidden in the reward system that explains much of narcissistic suffering. Dopamine mediates wanting—the motivational drive to pursue. But the brain has a separate system for liking—the actual pleasure of having obtained what we sought. This is the endogenous opioid system."

The citation supports the book's central argument that narcissistic validation-seeking is neurobiologically equivalent to addiction: the dopamine system drives compulsive pursuit while the opioid system—impaired by developmental disruption—cannot convert obtained validation into lasting satisfaction. This explains the defining paradox of narcissism: endless pursuit of something that never satisfies.

Historical Context

The distinction between wanting and liking emerged from Berridge's laboratory work in the 1980s and 1990s, challenging the prevailing assumption that dopamine was the brain's 'pleasure chemical.' This 'dopamine hypothesis of reward' held that rewarding experiences were rewarding because they triggered dopamine release, and dopamine release felt good. It was intuitive, widely accepted, and wrong.

Berridge's key insight came from taste reactivity studies. By measuring facial expressions in rodents responding to sweet and bitter tastes—expressions that appear evolutionarily conserved across mammals—he could quantify hedonic reactions independently of approach behaviour. When he blocked dopamine systems, animals stopped approaching food but still showed normal hedonic reactions when food was placed directly on their tongues. They had lost wanting without losing liking. This dissociation was replicated across numerous studies and methods, establishing that the wanting/liking distinction was real and neurobiologically grounded.

The collaboration with Terry Robinson added the addiction dimension. Robinson's work on dopamine sensitisation—showing that repeated drug exposure makes the dopamine system increasingly reactive to drug-associated cues—explained why addiction worsens over time even as tolerance reduces pleasure. Sensitised wanting combined with tolerant liking creates the addict's predicament: overwhelming craving for diminishing reward. Together, Berridge and Robinson developed the incentive-salience theory of addiction, which remains influential today.

The 2003 Trends in Neurosciences review synthesised two decades of research for a broad audience, establishing the wanting/liking framework as a foundational concept in reward neuroscience. It has influenced not only addiction research but also our understanding of motivation, decision-making, and psychiatric conditions from depression to schizophrenia to personality disorders.

The framework continues to evolve. Berridge's subsequent work has mapped 'hedonic hotspots'—specific brain regions where opioid stimulation produces pleasure—and explored how wanting and liking interact in generating behaviour. The basic distinction, however, has been repeatedly validated and remains central to how neuroscience understands reward.

Parsing reward

APA Citation