Pincus, A., & Lukowitsky, M. (2010) | References

What This Research Found

Aaron Pincus and Mark Lukowitsky's 2010 review article in the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology synthesised decades of research on pathological narcissism and established the framework that now dominates clinical understanding of narcissistic personality disorder. Their central contribution was clarifying that pathological narcissism is not one thing but two interrelated patterns, grandiose and vulnerable, that share core features but express them through opposite defensive strategies.

The two faces of pathological narcissism. Grandiose narcissism manifests through overt arrogance, interpersonal dominance, and aggressive entitlement. These are the narcissists we recognise: demanding admiration, dismissing others, responding to criticism with rage. Vulnerable narcissism manifests through hypersensitivity, chronic shame, defensive withdrawal, and victimhood. These narcissists appear insecure, anxious, and easily wounded, yet they share the same core pathology: inflated self-importance, lack of genuine empathy, and exploitation of others for self-esteem regulation. The difference is defensive strategy, not underlying structure.

The Pathological Narcissism Inventory. Pincus and colleagues developed the PNI to capture both expressions of narcissism, addressing a critical gap in assessment. Previous measures, including the widely used Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI), focused almost exclusively on grandiose features, missing vulnerable narcissism entirely. The PNI assesses seven dimensions across both presentations:

Exploitativeness: Using others to meet one's own needs without regard for their wellbeing
Grandiose fantasy: Preoccupation with fantasies of unlimited success, power, or admiration
Self-sacrificing self-enhancement: Appearing generous while expecting special recognition
Contingent self-esteem: Self-worth dependent on external validation
Hiding the self: Concealing aspects of self perceived as inferior or shameful
Devaluing: Diminishing others to maintain self-esteem
Entitlement rage: Intense anger when expectations of special treatment are unmet

This multidimensional approach revolutionised assessment, allowing clinicians to identify narcissistic pathology in patients whose presentations had been misunderstood as depression, anxiety, or borderline personality disorder.

The suicide paradox. Perhaps the most clinically significant finding concerns suicide risk. Narcissistic grandiosity might seem protective; surely people who love themselves would not want to die? Pincus and Lukowitsky demonstrate the opposite. Narcissistic self-esteem is not genuine self-love but contingent valuation requiring constant external confirmation. When narcissistic supplies collapse, whether through aging, career failure, relationship loss, or public humiliation, the underlying emptiness is exposed. Vulnerable narcissism shows particularly elevated suicide risk, approaching rates seen in borderline personality disorder. Even grandiose narcissists become vulnerable when supply fails.

The relationship to other pathology. The review demonstrates that pathological narcissism rarely exists in isolation. Vulnerable narcissism strongly predicts depression, anxiety disorders, and borderline personality features. Grandiose narcissism predicts substance abuse, antisocial behaviour, and explosive anger. Both predict relationship dysfunction, occupational impairment, and poor treatment outcomes across conditions. Pathological narcissism appears to be a vulnerability factor that worsens prognosis for many psychiatric conditions because narcissistic defenses interfere with the capacity to engage therapeutically, receive feedback, and change.

Normal versus pathological narcissism. Pincus and Lukowitsky clarify that healthy self-esteem is not the same as pathological narcissism. Normal narcissism involves stable self-worth that can absorb criticism and failure without catastrophic collapse. The person with healthy narcissism can experience disappointment without shattering, receive feedback without rage, and maintain relationships without exploiting others for self-esteem regulation. Pathological narcissism represents a qualitatively different organisation of self and relating, not simply excessive confidence. The grandiose narcissist's apparent self-love is defensive compensation, not genuine positive self-regard.

How This Research Is Used in the Book

Pincus and Lukowitsky's research appears in Narcissus and the Child specifically in the context of understanding suicide risk among aging narcissists and those experiencing narcissistic collapse. In Chapter 17: The Hollowed Self, which examines what happens as narcissists age and their sources of supply diminish, the book draws on this research to explain the counterintuitive relationship between narcissism and self-destruction:

"Narcissists' grandiosity might seem protective, their inflated self-regard could buffer against the hopelessness driving suicide. Yet research demonstrates that narcissism significantly increases suicide risk, particularly when narcissistic supplies collapse."

This citation supports the chapter's exploration of narcissistic collapse, the catastrophic disintegration that occurs when the false self structure can no longer be maintained. The book explains that vulnerable narcissists, those whose grandiosity is compensation rather than conviction, show suicide risk approaching that of borderline personality disorder. Even grandiose narcissists become vulnerable when circumstances strip away their sources of supply.

The chapter continues to explore how narcissistic suicide differs from depression-driven suicide:

"Grandiose narcissists, while potentially engaging in risky behaviours with lethal consequences, show lower rates of suicidal ideation. Vulnerable narcissists, those with overt grandiosity but underlying fragility, show significantly elevated suicide risk."

This distinction, drawn from Pincus and Lukowitsky's comprehensive review, helps readers understand that what protects against suicidal thoughts in stable narcissists (their defensive grandiosity) can become a risk factor when that defense fails. The aging narcissist, the narcissist facing public humiliation, the narcissist abandoned by their partner, these individuals experience collapse that can precipitate suicidal crisis.

Why This Matters for Survivors

If you experienced a narcissistic parent, partner, or family member, Pincus and Lukowitsky's research provides crucial clarity about the contradictions you witnessed.

The person you knew was not stable, even when they seemed confident. You may have experienced someone who appeared supremely self-assured, dismissive of your concerns, and certain of their superiority, then suddenly collapsed into victimhood, hypersensitivity, and desperate need for reassurance. This was not manipulation in the strategic sense, though it may have felt that way. It was oscillation between grandiose and vulnerable presentations of the same underlying pathology. When narcissistic supply was abundant, grandiosity dominated. When supply was threatened, vulnerable defenses emerged. Understanding this helps explain why you could never find stable ground with them; there was no stable ground to find.

Their vulnerability was real, but it did not mean they could connect authentically. Vulnerable narcissism can generate genuine sympathy. The person seems wounded, insecure, needing support. You may have believed that if you could just provide enough reassurance, enough love, enough validation, you could help them feel secure. Pincus and Lukowitsky's research reveals why this strategy was doomed. Vulnerable narcissism is not low self-esteem that can be addressed through care and support. It is a defensive organisation that uses apparent vulnerability to extract supply while maintaining the same core pathology: inflated self-importance, lack of genuine empathy, and exploitation of relationships. Your care was received as supply, not as authentic connection.

Their grandiosity was compensation, not confidence. Grandiose narcissists project such certainty that you may have doubted your own perceptions. Surely someone so confident knows something you do not? Pincus and Lukowitsky demonstrate that narcissistic grandiosity is fundamentally different from healthy confidence. It requires constant external validation because there is no stable internal foundation. The grandiose narcissist's apparent self-love is defense against unbearable shame and emptiness, not genuine positive self-regard. What seemed like strength was fragility defended against awareness of fragility.

Your concern about their wellbeing was legitimate, but you could not save them. If you worried about what might happen to a narcissistic family member as they aged, lost status, or faced life circumstances that threatened their supply, Pincus and Lukowitsky's research validates that concern. Narcissistic collapse is real and dangerous. Vulnerable narcissism particularly predicts depression, suicidal ideation, and self-destructive behaviour when defenses fail. Yet this research also clarifies the limits of what you could do. The narcissist's defensive structure prevents them from using the authentic care and support that might help. Your compassion was not wrong, but it could not penetrate defenses designed to prevent exactly the vulnerability that healing would require.

Clinical Implications

For psychiatrists, psychologists, and trauma-informed clinicians, Pincus and Lukowitsky's research has transformed assessment and treatment of narcissistic pathology.

Screen for vulnerable narcissism in treatment-resistant depression and anxiety. Patients presenting with chronic dysphoria, hypersensitivity, and interpersonal dysfunction may have undiagnosed vulnerable narcissism underlying their mood and anxiety symptoms. Standard treatments for depression and anxiety may fail because they do not address the narcissistic personality organisation that maintains symptoms. The PNI and similar instruments can identify vulnerable narcissism in patients whose presentation does not match the grandiose stereotype. When you encounter a patient who remains depressed despite adequate treatment, who responds to feedback with injury rather than reflection, whose relationships show patterns of entitlement and exploitation masked by apparent victimhood, consider whether vulnerable narcissism is present.

Assess both grandiose and vulnerable features comprehensively. The same patient may show primarily grandiose features in some contexts and vulnerable features in others. Assessment should capture both presentations and their contextual triggers. When does the patient become grandiose? When does vulnerability emerge? What supply sources are they dependent upon, and what might threaten those sources? Understanding the patient's particular oscillation pattern helps predict crisis points and tailor intervention.

Recognise the suicide risk in narcissistic populations. Clinicians may underestimate suicide risk in narcissistic patients because grandiosity can mask depression and because narcissistic patients often deny vulnerability. Pincus and Lukowitsky's research demonstrates that vulnerable narcissism predicts suicide risk at levels comparable to borderline personality disorder. Even grandiose narcissists become at risk when facing narcissistic injury, public exposure, or loss of supply sources. Assessment should specifically inquire about narcissistic supply, recent threats to self-esteem, and any indications of collapse. The period immediately following major loss or humiliation is particularly dangerous.

Understand why treatment engagement is difficult. Pathological narcissism predicts poor treatment outcomes across conditions because narcissistic defenses interfere with the therapeutic process. Grandiose narcissists may devalue therapists, resist feedback, and terminate treatment when challenged. Vulnerable narcissists may engage but use therapy for validation rather than change, developing dependency on the therapeutic relationship as another supply source rather than using it for growth. Clinicians must maintain empathy for the wounded person beneath defenses while refusing to collude with pathological patterns, neither attacking grandiosity nor reinforcing vulnerable victimhood.

Address shame carefully. Both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism defend against intolerable shame, though through opposite strategies. Grandiose narcissism suppresses shame through superiority; vulnerable narcissism is organised around chronic shame that cannot be metabolised. Therapeutic work that approaches shame-laden material too quickly can trigger narcissistic injury, defensive escalation, and treatment dropout. Progress requires building the patient's capacity to tolerate shame without resort to either grandiose or vulnerable defenses, work that typically spans years with frequent setbacks.

Treat survivors with specialised understanding. Patients who experienced narcissistic abuse present with distinct clinical features that Pincus and Lukowitsky's framework helps illuminate. They may have learned that expressing authentic needs results in devaluation, that their perceptions cannot be trusted, and that their value depends entirely on meeting another's narcissistic needs. Rebuilding these patients' sense of being valid, perceivable people with legitimate inner lives requires recognising how thoroughly narcissistic relating structures eroded their sense of self. The therapeutic relationship must model genuine relating, seeing the patient as a separate subject rather than as a source of supply, something they may never have experienced.

Broader Implications

Pincus and Lukowitsky's research extends beyond individual diagnosis and treatment to illuminate patterns across social systems and cultural contexts.

Assessment in Legal and Forensic Contexts

Family courts, custody evaluators, and forensic examiners regularly encounter narcissistic individuals, often in high-conflict situations where accurate assessment has significant consequences. The grandiose-vulnerable distinction helps evaluators recognise that narcissistic presentation varies by context. The parent who presents as charming and reasonable in evaluation may show grandiose entitlement and exploitation at home. The parent who presents as victimised and anxious may be exhibiting vulnerable narcissism, with the same underlying pathology of empathy deficits and child exploitation expressed through different defenses. Comprehensive assessment requires moving beyond surface presentation to examine patterns of relating across contexts and over time.

Workplace and Organisational Dynamics

Narcissistic leaders create toxic environments, but the form of toxicity differs by presentation. Grandiose narcissistic leaders demand admiration openly, take credit for others' work visibly, and respond to challenge with overt aggression. Vulnerable narcissistic leaders create different but equally destructive patterns: chronic complaints about being underappreciated, passive-aggressive punishment of those who fail to validate them, and victimhood narratives that prevent accountability. Organisations that understand both presentations can recognise warning signs earlier and design systems that limit damage, including distributed authority, anonymous feedback mechanisms, and clear accountability structures.

Cultural and Generational Considerations

The relative prevalence of grandiose versus vulnerable narcissistic presentations may vary across cultures and generations. Cultures that reward individual achievement and overt self-promotion may produce more grandiose presentations; cultures that value modesty and indirect communication may produce more vulnerable presentations of the same underlying pathology. Generational differences in social media use, economic opportunity, and parenting practices may also shape which narcissistic expression predominates. Pincus and Lukowitsky's framework provides tools for recognising narcissistic pathology across these variations rather than missing it when it does not match cultural stereotypes.

Understanding Intergenerational Transmission

Children of narcissistic parents may develop narcissistic structures themselves, but the presentation often differs from the parent's. The child of a grandiose narcissist, raised to reflect the parent's glory while having their own needs dismissed, may develop vulnerable narcissism, the same entitlement and empathy deficits expressed through victimhood rather than dominance. The child of a vulnerable narcissist, burdened with regulating the parent's fragile self-esteem, may develop grandiose defenses against the engulfment they experienced. Understanding the grandiose-vulnerable spectrum helps clinicians trace transmission pathways and intervene to break cycles.

Mental Health System Design

The finding that pathological narcissism predicts poor treatment outcomes across conditions has implications for mental health system design. Clinicians treating depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and relationship problems regularly encounter patients whose underlying narcissistic pathology interferes with treatment but goes unrecognised. Training programmes might incorporate comprehensive education about narcissistic presentations, including the vulnerable form that mimics other conditions. Referral networks might include specialists in personality disorders who can provide consultation when narcissistic features complicate treatment. Outcome measurement might include assessment of narcissistic features to understand why some patients fail to improve despite adequate intervention.

Limitations and Considerations

Pincus and Lukowitsky's influential framework has limitations that warrant acknowledgment.

Self-report measurement challenges. The PNI and similar instruments rely on self-report, which narcissistic individuals may distort due to limited self-insight, impression management, or defensive denial. Grandiose narcissists may underreport negative features; vulnerable narcissists may overreport distress while missing their own entitlement and exploitation. No self-report instrument fully captures a disorder characterised partly by lack of self-awareness. Clinical assessment must integrate self-report with behavioural observation, collateral information, and attention to how the patient relates to the assessor.

Categorical versus dimensional debates. The review navigates ongoing debates about whether narcissistic personality disorder is best understood as a categorical diagnosis (present or absent) or a dimensional construct (varying in degree). Pincus and Lukowitsky lean toward dimensional conceptualisation, but clinical settings often require categorical decisions about diagnosis and treatment. The boundary between normal narcissistic traits and pathological narcissism remains somewhat arbitrary, complicating both research and practice.

Treatment evidence remains limited. While the review clarifies assessment and conceptualisation, evidence-based treatments for narcissistic personality disorder remain underdeveloped compared to treatments for other conditions. Randomised controlled trials are difficult to conduct because narcissistic individuals resist treatment engagement and frequently drop out. The clinical guidance available is based substantially on clinical wisdom and case series rather than rigorous trials.

Cultural and demographic considerations. Much research on pathological narcissism has been conducted with Western, predominantly white, and often clinical samples. How narcissism manifests across cultures, how gender shapes narcissistic expression, and whether developmental pathways to narcissism vary across social contexts remain incompletely understood. The framework provides valuable tools but should be applied with attention to cultural context.

Evolving diagnostic landscape. Since 2010, debates about personality disorder classification have continued, with DSM-5 including an alternative dimensional model in Section III and ICD-11 adopting a dimensional approach. How the grandiose-vulnerable distinction maps onto these evolving frameworks requires ongoing clarification.

Historical Context

Pincus and Lukowitsky's 2010 review appeared at a critical moment for narcissistic personality disorder. The DSM-5 task force was considering whether to eliminate NPD as a diagnostic category, subsuming it under a dimensional model of personality pathology. This proposal generated significant controversy, with many clinicians arguing that NPD was a clinically meaningful and distinct condition that should not be eliminated.

The review provided crucial evidence for this debate. By synthesising research demonstrating that narcissistic pathology predicted distinct patterns of psychopathology, relationship dysfunction, and treatment challenge, Pincus and Lukowitsky helped establish that NPD was not merely extreme self-confidence but a qualitatively distinct personality organisation with significant clinical implications. Their clarification of the grandiose-vulnerable distinction also helped explain why clinicians had struggled to recognise narcissism in its less obvious forms, not a failure of the diagnostic category but inadequate assessment tools.

The development of the Pathological Narcissism Inventory addressed a practical problem that had hampered both research and clinical practice. The Narcissistic Personality Inventory, the most widely used measure, captured primarily grandiose features and included items reflecting normal self-confidence alongside pathological narcissism. The PNI provided a more comprehensive and clinically relevant assessment tool that has since been translated into multiple languages and adopted in research and clinical settings worldwide.

The review's impact has been substantial. With over 2,500 citations, it ranks among the most influential papers on narcissistic personality disorder. Its framework shapes how researchers conceptualise and measure narcissism, how clinicians assess and diagnose patients, and how trainers educate the next generation of mental health professionals. The grandiose-vulnerable distinction has become standard vocabulary in the field.

Pathological narcissism and narcissistic personality disorder

APA Citation