Shapiro, F. (2017) | References | Narcissus and the Child

What This Research Found

Francine Shapiro's comprehensive clinical manual establishes EMDR as a complete therapeutic approach grounded in the Adaptive Information Processing (AIP) model—a theory explaining how the brain naturally processes experiences and why trauma disrupts this system. Now in its third edition with over 30 randomised controlled trials supporting its effectiveness, EMDR has earned recognition from every major health organisation as a first-line treatment for trauma.

The Adaptive Information Processing model explains why trauma gets "stuck." Shapiro proposes that the brain has an inherent information processing system that naturally moves experiences toward adaptive resolution—integrating them into existing memory networks where they inform but don't overwhelm. Traumatic experiences overwhelm this system, becoming stored in their original, unprocessed state with all the emotions, sensations, and beliefs present at the time of trauma. This explains why traumatic memories feel current rather than past, why triggers can instantly transport survivors back to the traumatic moment, and why knowing better doesn't stop trauma responses. The memory isn't remembered—it's relived, because it was never fully processed in the first place.

Bilateral stimulation facilitates natural reprocessing. The distinctive element of EMDR—alternating bilateral stimulation through eye movements, tapping, or audio tones—appears to activate the brain's natural processing mechanisms. Neuroimaging research shows that during EMDR, activity in the amygdala (the brain's alarm system) decreases while activity in the prefrontal cortex (responsible for contextualising and integrating experience) increases. The bilateral stimulation may mimic the neurological processes of REM sleep, during which the brain naturally processes daily experiences. Whatever the precise mechanism, the result is measurable: traumatic memories lose their emotional intensity and become integrated into normal memory networks.

The eight-phase protocol addresses trauma comprehensively. EMDR is not simply eye movements; it's a structured protocol addressing history-taking, preparation, assessment, desensitisation, installation of positive cognitions, body scanning, closure, and re-evaluation. This comprehensive approach means EMDR addresses not just traumatic memories but the negative beliefs attached to them ("I'm worthless," "I can't trust myself"), the body sensations that hold trauma, and the present triggers that activate trauma responses. For survivors of complex trauma, including those from narcissistic family systems, the third edition expands protocols for populations with accumulated developmental trauma, dissociative symptoms, and attachment wounds.

The evidence base is substantial and growing. By 2017, EMDR had been evaluated in over 30 randomised controlled trials. Research shows 84-90% of single-trauma victims no longer meet PTSD criteria after three 90-minute sessions. For complex trauma populations, 77% achieve remission after six sessions. Combat veterans—historically treatment-resistant—show 77% remission after twelve sessions. Meta-analyses consistently place EMDR among the most effective treatments for PTSD, comparable to or exceeding trauma-focused cognitive behavioural therapy. The World Health Organisation, American Psychiatric Association, UK NICE, and U.S. Veterans Administration all recommend EMDR as a first-line treatment for PTSD.

How This Research Is Used in the Book

Shapiro's EMDR research appears throughout Narcissus and the Child as a key therapeutic approach for narcissistic abuse recovery. The book draws on both the clinical protocols and the underlying AIP model to explain healing mechanisms.

In Chapter 11: Narcissistic Contagion (archived as Chapter 11: The Gaslit Self), EMDR is presented as a treatment specifically suited for gaslighting survivors:

"EMDR uses bilateral stimulation (eye movements, tapping, or audio tones) while accessing traumatic memories, facilitating reprocessing from emotional/somatic storage to narrative/integrated storage. Recognised by the U.S. Departments of Veterans Affairs and Defense, WHO, and UK NICE as best practice for PTSD treatment. Shapiro's third edition (2017) incorporates 15 years of neurophysiological research and expanded protocols for complex trauma, addictions, and moral injury—all relevant to gaslighting survivors."

The book notes EMDR's particular value for gaslighting survivors: "For gaslighting survivors, EMDR can target specific traumatic interactions, reduce trigger reactivity, and process the accumulated impact of chronic invalidation. The bilateral stimulation may help integrate split mental compartments, allowing the survivor to hold contradictory information ('He said he loved me' and 'He systematically harmed me') in awareness simultaneously."

In Chapter 21: Breaking the Spell, EMDR appears as "the gold standard for trauma processing":

"EMDR's effectiveness for PTSD is now so well-established that the World Health Organisation, the American Psychiatric Association, and the Department of Veterans Affairs all recommend it as a first-line treatment. For narcissistic abuse survivors, EMDR offers particular advantages that make it especially suitable."

The book specifically highlights why EMDR suits narcissistic abuse survivors: it does not require detailed verbal processing (essential for those gaslit into doubting their narratives), it addresses negative core beliefs installed by the narcissist, and it works relatively quickly compared to traditional therapy. The book quotes a participant: "I went in with this specific memory—him screaming at me while I cowered in the bathroom. Through the eye movements, other connected memories came up... By the end of the session, that bathroom memory had lost its power. I could remember it without feeling like I was back there. For the first time in years, it was actually in the past."

Why This Matters for Survivors

If you survived narcissistic abuse, Shapiro's research offers both validation and hope—explaining why you struggle and how healing is possible.

Your trauma responses are not character flaws—they reflect how unprocessed memories work. When traumatic experiences aren't fully processed, they remain stored in their original emotional state, ready to be triggered by anything resembling the original situation. The hypervigilance that activates at a certain tone of voice, the panic at a facial expression, the collapse when someone criticises you—these aren't overreactions. They're your brain retrieving unprocessed trauma as though it's happening now, because neurologically, it is. The Adaptive Information Processing model explains that until trauma is processed, it cannot become past. Your reactions make perfect sense given how your brain stored what happened.

You don't have to convince anyone—including yourself—that it was "bad enough." One of EMDR's most important features for gaslighting survivors is that it doesn't require you to narrate your trauma in detail or prove its severity. Narcissistic abuse involves systematic invalidation—being told your perceptions are wrong, your feelings are excessive, your experiences didn't happen the way you remember. EMDR works with whatever your brain stored: the emotions, the body sensations, the beliefs formed in response. You don't need certainty about details. You don't need to construct a coherent narrative. The bilateral stimulation allows processing to occur without requiring you to overcome the doubt that gaslighting instilled.

The beliefs the narcissist installed can be changed at a neurological level. "I'm worthless." "I'm unlovable." "I'm crazy." "I deserve bad treatment." "I can't trust my own perceptions." These beliefs weren't reasoned into existence—they were installed through repeated traumatic experience and emotional conditioning. That's why you can't argue yourself out of them; they're not held in the arguing part of your brain. EMDR's protocol specifically addresses negative cognitions, allowing them to be reprocessed alongside the traumatic memories they're attached to. Survivors consistently report that beliefs which felt absolutely true before processing feel obviously false afterward—without having had to convince themselves intellectually. The neurological reconsolidation literally changes what feels true.

Healing doesn't require decades of therapy. Years of abuse create deep wounds, and some survivors have spent decades in talk therapy without full resolution. Shapiro's research shows that EMDR can achieve what traditional therapy often cannot, because it accesses trauma where it's actually stored—in emotional and sensory brain regions that operate below language. While complex trauma requires more sessions than single-incident trauma, many survivors experience significant improvement within 12-20 sessions. This doesn't mean healing is easy or instant, but it does mean you don't have to resign yourself to a lifetime of processing. The brain's neuroplasticity allows genuine change, even from deeply encoded developmental trauma.

Clinical Implications

For psychiatrists, psychologists, and trauma-informed healthcare providers, Shapiro's work has direct implications for assessment and treatment of narcissistic abuse survivors.

Assess for the specific features that indicate EMDR may be appropriate. Narcissistic abuse survivors often present with symptoms that may not meet standard PTSD criteria—the A-criterion focus on life-threatening events historically excluded emotional abuse. However, research cited in the third edition demonstrates EMDR effectiveness for "memories involving other types of adverse events, including emotional abuse and neglect." Assess for intrusive memories of specific interactions, emotional flashbacks, avoidance of reminders, negative cognitions about self, hypervigilance, and exaggerated startle response. The presence of these symptoms, even without traditional PTSD diagnosis, suggests EMDR may help. Note that survivors of chronic narcissistic abuse may present with Complex PTSD features—affect dysregulation, negative self-concept, and interpersonal difficulties—requiring the expanded protocols in the third edition.

Preparation phase requires expansion for this population. Standard EMDR protocols assume clients have baseline regulatory capacity and internal resources. Many narcissistic abuse survivors lack these foundations—their early attachment figures provided neither safety nor regulatory scaffolding. Resource Development and Installation (RDI) may need significant expansion before any trauma processing. This might include developing safe place imagery, installing nurturing figures (particularly important for those whose actual parents were the source of harm), building affect regulation skills, and establishing the therapeutic alliance that provides external regulatory support. Attempting reprocessing before adequate stabilisation risks dissociation, flooding, or therapeutic rupture.

Expect complex trauma presentations with chained memories. Narcissistic abuse involves repeated, patterned trauma, not discrete incidents. Targeting one memory often activates connected memories across developmental stages—a critical comment by the narcissistic parent links to similar comments by the narcissistic ex-partner, links to childhood incidents of being unseen or invalidated. This "chaining" is therapeutically useful (processing one memory can partially process the entire chain) but requires case conceptualisation that accounts for the web of interconnected trauma. The third edition's expanded complex trauma protocols address this reality, but clinicians should be prepared for sessions that follow these chains rather than resolving discrete incidents.

Monitor for dissociative responses during processing. Survivors of chronic childhood abuse often developed dissociation as a survival mechanism. Standard EMDR assumes continuous memory access, but dissociative clients may lose connection to the target memory, shift between ego states, or experience depersonalisation or derealisation during bilateral stimulation. The third edition includes modifications for dissociative populations, including slower bilateral stimulation, increased grounding, ego state interventions, and careful titration of trauma exposure. Assess dissociative tendencies before beginning EMDR and obtain additional training in dissociation-informed approaches if working regularly with this population. Proceeding with standard protocols in highly dissociative clients can be destabilising.

The therapeutic relationship is a treatment component, not just context. For survivors whose primary attachment relationships were sources of harm, the therapeutic relationship provides corrective attachment experience. This isn't incidental to EMDR—it's part of why EMDR works. The regulated, attuned presence of the therapist provides co-regulation that the client's nervous system needs to approach traumatic material. Survivors of narcissistic abuse have learned that vulnerability leads to exploitation; the therapy relationship must consistently demonstrate otherwise before deep trauma work is safe. Therapist self-regulation is essential—an anxious or dysregulated therapist cannot provide the regulatory function these clients need.

Broader Implications

Shapiro's work extends beyond individual treatment to illuminate patterns affecting families, institutions, and society.

The Intergenerational Transmission of Trauma

Narcissistic parents almost invariably have their own unprocessed trauma, often including their own histories of narcissistic parenting. The AIP model explains the mechanism of intergenerational transmission: unprocessed traumatic experiences continue to influence perception and behaviour, shaping how the parent relates to their child. The parent's triggers become the child's traumas; the parent's dissociation creates the child's experience of absence; the parent's unmetabolised rage becomes the child's chronic fear. EMDR offers a specific intervention point: treating the parent's unprocessed trauma may prevent its transmission to the next generation. Research on EMDR with perpetrators of domestic violence—reducing their trauma symptoms and subsequent violent behaviour—suggests that healing abusers' trauma (when they're willing) may protect potential victims.

Relationship Patterns and Partner Selection

Adults with unprocessed developmental trauma often find themselves in relationships that replicate familiar dynamics. The AIP model explains why: unprocessed memories continue to influence perception and response, leading survivors to experience safe relationships as boring or suspicious while experiencing familiar chaos as "passionate" or "intense." The nervous system, shaped by early abuse, may not recognise safety as safety. EMDR treatment of early attachment trauma can shift these patterns—as early memories are processed, the templates they created update, allowing survivors to experience healthy relationships differently. Several EMDR clinicians have documented survivors' post-treatment ability to recognise and leave narcissistic relationships they previously would have accepted or rationalised.

Workplace Dynamics and Professional Functioning

Narcissistic abuse survivors often struggle in professional environments that trigger developmental trauma—hierarchical relationships activating early experiences of parental domination, criticism echoing childhood shaming, performance evaluation triggering survival fears. The AIP model explains these reactions as unprocessed memories being activated by present-day resemblances. EMDR targeting workplace triggers—the critical supervisor who resembles the narcissistic parent, the public presentation that activates humiliation fears—can reduce hyperreactivity and improve professional functioning. Some clinicians use EMDR to process workplace trauma specifically, recognising that professional environments can become secondary trauma sites for those with developmental vulnerabilities.

Healthcare and Medical Settings

Many narcissistic abuse survivors avoid medical care—settings involving power differentials, vulnerability, and loss of control trigger trauma responses. The AIP model explains this avoidance as unprocessed memories activated by resemblance to original trauma. Healthcare providers who understand this dynamic can modify their approaches; providers trained in EMDR can specifically target medical trauma and healthcare avoidance. For survivors with somatic manifestations of trauma—chronic pain, autoimmune conditions, functional gastrointestinal disorders—addressing the underlying trauma through EMDR may complement medical treatment, reducing the somatic burden that unprocessed trauma creates.

Legal and Forensic Applications

EMDR's effects on traumatic memory have implications for legal contexts. Processed memories become less vivid, less emotionally overwhelming, and more integrated—potentially affecting witness testimony. Forensic examiners and legal professionals should understand that EMDR changes the subjective experience of memories without creating false memories or eliminating accurate recall. In family court contexts involving narcissistic abuse, EMDR-treated survivors may present as more regulated and credible, not because EMDR changes facts but because it reduces the emotional overwhelm that can make trauma survivors appear "unstable." Understanding EMDR's effects can help legal professionals accurately assess testimony from treated survivors.

Public Health and Prevention

If unprocessed trauma contributes to narcissistic personality development and the intergenerational transmission of abuse, then trauma treatment represents a prevention intervention. EMDR's efficiency—significant improvement in 6-20 sessions rather than years—makes broad population-level implementation feasible in ways that intensive long-term therapies do not. Training community mental health clinicians in EMDR, integrating EMDR into child welfare systems, and providing EMDR to parents at risk of transmitting trauma to children could potentially reduce the population prevalence of narcissistic parenting and its downstream effects. The public health case for scaling evidence-based trauma treatment is substantial.

Limitations and Considerations

Shapiro's work, while groundbreaking, has limitations that warrant acknowledgment.

The mechanism of bilateral stimulation remains debated. While EMDR's effectiveness is well-established, exactly why bilateral stimulation works continues to be researched. Theories include: working memory taxation (dual attention reduces memory vividness), mimicry of REM sleep processing, enhanced interhemispheric communication, and orienting response activation. These mechanisms are not mutually exclusive, and different mechanisms may operate for different clients or trauma types. The uncertainty about mechanism does not undermine the strong evidence for effectiveness, but it does limit theoretical precision.

Complex trauma populations have less extensive research than single-trauma populations. Much of EMDR's research base comes from studies of single-incident adult trauma—combat, accidents, assaults. While the third edition expands protocols for complex developmental trauma, and growing research supports effectiveness for these populations, the evidence base is less robust than for single-incident PTSD. Clinicians should be appropriately humble about generalising single-trauma findings to complex trauma clients while remaining informed about the growing evidence supporting EMDR for developmental trauma.

Not all clients respond to EMDR. Response rates of 77-90% mean that 10-23% of clients do not achieve remission with EMDR alone. Predictors of non-response are not fully understood but may include severe dissociation, ongoing trauma exposure, significant substance use, and certain attachment patterns. Clinicians should have alternative approaches available for non-responders and should not present EMDR as guaranteed to work. Additionally, some clients find bilateral stimulation uncomfortable or activating in ways that impede processing; modifications may be needed, or alternative trauma treatments may be more appropriate.

Cultural adaptations need continued development. EMDR was developed in Western clinical contexts, and most research has been conducted with Western populations. Concepts of trauma, healing, and the therapeutic relationship vary across cultures. While EMDR has been successfully used in diverse cultural contexts, including humanitarian responses in non-Western countries, systematic research on culturally adapted protocols is ongoing. Clinicians working with diverse populations should attend to cultural fit and be prepared to modify approaches accordingly.

Historical Context

Francine Shapiro's discovery of EMDR occurred in 1987, when she noticed during a walk that certain eye movements seemed to reduce the disturbance of her own troubling thoughts. This serendipitous observation led to systematic investigation, initial publication in 1989, and the development of a comprehensive therapeutic protocol. The first edition of this clinical manual appeared in 1995, establishing EMDR as a structured approach with theoretical grounding in what Shapiro called Accelerated Information Processing, later renamed Adaptive Information Processing.

EMDR's early years were marked by controversy. The dramatic claims of rapid improvement, the unusual bilateral stimulation component, and Shapiro's initial restrictions on training provoked skepticism from the psychotherapy establishment. Critics questioned whether EMDR was anything more than placebo or exposure therapy with unnecessary additions. This controversy drove research—dozens of randomised controlled trials were conducted, neuroimaging studies examined brain changes during treatment, and component analyses investigated what elements were essential.

The research largely vindicated EMDR's claims. By the time the second edition appeared in 2001, EMDR had earned recognition from the American Psychological Association and was beginning to appear in treatment guidelines. The third edition, published in 2017, arrived after EMDR had achieved recognition from virtually every major health organisation worldwide. The theoretical framework had matured, the research base had expanded enormously, and protocols had been developed for complex trauma populations that the original work hadn't addressed.

Francine Shapiro died in 2019, having trained over 100,000 clinicians and established EMDR as one of the most extensively researched and widely practised psychotherapies in history. Her work transformed trauma treatment globally, demonstrating that traumatic memories need not remain frozen indefinitely and that healing can occur far more efficiently than previously believed. For survivors of narcissistic abuse—a population often underserved by traditional approaches—Shapiro's contribution offers specific, evidence-based hope.

Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR) Therapy: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Procedures

APA Citation