Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987) | References

What This Research Found

Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver's 1987 paper fundamentally transformed how psychologists understand romantic love. Published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology and cited over 8,000 times, this research established that adult romantic attachment operates through the same psychological and biological systems that bond infants to caregivers—a finding with profound implications for understanding why we love the way we do.

The core discovery: romantic love is an attachment process. Hazan and Shaver proposed that the intense emotional bonds adults form with romantic partners are not separate from childhood attachment but rather a continuation of it. The same system that drove you as an infant to seek proximity to your caregiver, to feel distressed when separated, and to use them as a secure base for exploration—this same system activates when you fall in love. Romantic partners become adult attachment figures, serving the same psychological functions that parents served in childhood.

Adult attachment styles mirror infant patterns. Building on Mary Ainsworth's identification of infant attachment patterns, Hazan and Shaver translated these into adult romantic contexts. Their research revealed three primary styles among adults, appearing in roughly the same proportions as in infancy:

Secure attachment (approximately 56% of adults): These individuals find it relatively easy to get close to others. They're comfortable depending on partners and having partners depend on them. They don't worry much about being abandoned or about others getting too close.
Anxious attachment (approximately 19% of adults): These individuals want extreme emotional closeness but often worry that their partners don't really love them or won't want to stay. They crave intimacy that can sometimes push others away.
Avoidant attachment (approximately 25% of adults): These individuals feel uncomfortable getting too close to others. They find it difficult to trust completely or to allow themselves to depend on partners. They become nervous when anyone gets too close.

Attachment styles predict relationship experiences. The research demonstrated that attachment style systematically predicts how people experience romantic love:

Secure adults described their most important love experience as especially happy, friendly, and trusting. They emphasised being able to accept and support their partner despite faults. Their relationships tended to be longer-lasting.
Anxious adults experienced love as involving obsession, emotional highs and lows, extreme sexual attraction, jealousy, and desire for reciprocation and union. They fell in love easily and often, but also experienced more relationship distress.
Avoidant adults described love as characterised by fear of intimacy, emotional highs and lows, and jealousy. They were more likely to say they had never been in love and least likely to characterise themselves as having had a great love story.

Internal working models create continuity. Perhaps most importantly, Hazan and Shaver demonstrated that attachment styles relate to mental models of self and relationships—what Bowlby called "internal working models." These models, formed through early experiences with caregivers, shape expectations about relationships across the lifespan. Adults with secure attachment reported warmer, more positive memories of their parents and the relationship between their parents. Those with insecure attachment reported more negative family-of-origin experiences. The past literally shapes the present through these internalised relationship templates.

How This Research Is Used in the Book

Hazan and Shaver's research on adult romantic attachment appears in Narcissus and the Child to explain why victims of narcissistic abuse find it so difficult to leave—even when they intellectually understand they should. In the material addressing protective factors and the mechanisms of entrapment, this research illuminates the biological basis of trauma bonds:

"Adult romantic relationships activate the same attachment circuitry. When narcissistic situations become primary attachment figures (achieved through idealisation-phase intensity and isolation from alternative attachment sources), victims' distress at narcissistic abuse increases attachment proximity-seeking to the very narcissistic situation causing distress."

The book uses this research to validate survivors' experience: the pull toward an abuser is not weakness, stupidity, or masochism—it is the attachment system functioning exactly as evolution designed it. The attachment system evolved in a context where infants could not leave harmful caregivers, so it was designed to maintain bonds despite harm, prioritising proximity (necessary for infant survival) over wellbeing. In adult romantic relationships, this same system creates what survivors experience as: "I need them more than ever; they're the only one who understands me; I can't survive without them."

Understanding this mechanism is therapeutically crucial. It allows survivors to stop blaming themselves for staying, for returning, for missing someone who hurt them. These responses are not character flaws but predictable outcomes of attachment biology exploited by narcissistic dynamics.

Why This Matters for Survivors

If you've experienced narcissistic abuse in a romantic relationship, Hazan and Shaver's research offers both validation and hope.

Your attachment to your abuser is biology, not weakness. The intense bond you feel—or felt—with your narcissistic partner isn't evidence that the relationship was meaningful or that the love was real. It's evidence that your attachment system did what it's designed to do: form bonds rapidly and maintain them tenaciously. Narcissistic partners often excel at the behaviours that trigger attachment formation—intense attention, mirroring, love-bombing—without being capable of the genuine intimacy that attachment normally supports. Your attachment system can't tell the difference; it responds to the signals, not the authenticity behind them.

Your difficulty leaving makes biological sense. When your attachment system has designated someone as a primary attachment figure, separation triggers the same distress responses it would have triggered in infancy. The anxiety, the panic, the obsessive thoughts, the physical symptoms of withdrawal—these are your attachment system treating separation as a survival threat. Hazan and Shaver's research explains why victims return to abusers an average of seven times before successfully leaving: each departure activates attachment panic that drives reunion-seeking. This isn't weakness or love; it's neurobiology.

Your relationship patterns were learned, not chosen. If you find yourself repeatedly attracted to narcissistic partners, the research on internal working models explains why. Your early experiences with caregivers—including, perhaps, a narcissistic parent—created templates for what relationships should feel like. If emotional volatility, conditional love, and the desperate pursuit of approval were your childhood norm, partners who provide these may feel like "real love" while genuinely healthy partners feel flat or wrong. You're not consciously choosing dysfunction; your working models are operating outside awareness, making certain partners feel compellingly familiar.

Your working models can be updated. The same research that explains why you developed certain patterns also points toward change. Internal working models are not fixed at birth; they're constructed through experience and can be modified through new experiences. Researchers have documented "earned secure attachment"—people who experienced difficult childhoods but developed secure relationship patterns through therapy, meaningful friendships, or relationships with securely attached partners. The updating process is slower than original learning and the old models never completely disappear, but meaningful change is possible. Your attachment history is a starting point, not a life sentence.

Clinical Implications

For psychiatrists, psychologists, and trauma-informed therapists working with survivors of narcissistic abuse, Hazan and Shaver's framework has direct implications for assessment and treatment.

Assessment should map attachment history alongside trauma history. Understanding a client's attachment style—and how it developed through family-of-origin experiences—provides crucial context for treatment planning. Anxiously attached clients may present with relationship preoccupation, fear of abandonment, and difficulty tolerating therapeutic breaks. Avoidantly attached clients may minimise the importance of relationships (including the therapeutic relationship), maintain emotional distance, and struggle to engage with attachment-related material. Disorganised attachment, often associated with frightening or frightened caregivers, may manifest as confused, contradictory relationship behaviour. Each pattern suggests different therapeutic approaches and potential transference dynamics.

The therapeutic relationship is an attachment relationship. Hazan and Shaver's research implies that attachment patterns update through new relationship experiences, not merely through insight. For clients whose internal working models were shaped by narcissistic caregiving, the therapist can become a new attachment figure—one who provides the consistent responsiveness, emotional attunement, and reliable availability that was missing. This corrective attachment experience gradually updates the client's expectations about relationships. The therapy relationship isn't just the container for treatment; it is treatment.

Expect attachment dynamics to manifest in therapy. Anxiously attached clients may become preoccupied with the therapeutic relationship, seeking excessive reassurance, becoming distressed at breaks or endings, or testing the therapist's commitment through various means. Avoidantly attached clients may dismiss therapy's importance, maintain superficial engagement, or terminate when the relationship becomes too meaningful. Rather than viewing these patterns as "resistance," clinicians can recognise them as the attachment material requiring therapeutic attention. Working through these dynamics within the therapeutic relationship is how internal working models update.

Trauma bonding requires specific intervention. For clients in or recently out of narcissistic relationships, the intensity of attachment may override rational decision-making. Standard therapeutic encouragement to "just leave" fails to account for attachment biology. More effective approaches include: psychoeducation about attachment and trauma bonding (helping clients understand their experience as normal rather than defective); building alternative attachment relationships (friends, family, support groups) that can buffer the loss of the primary attachment figure; and gradual exposure to separation with support, rather than expecting immediate permanent departure.

Consider the neurobiological substrate. For psychiatrists, the attachment system has known neurobiological correlates involving oxytocin, vasopressin, dopamine reward circuits, and stress response systems. Pharmacological interventions that modulate anxiety (SSRIs, SNRIs) may reduce the intensity of attachment-related distress, creating space for therapeutic work. However, medication cannot substitute for the relational experiences that update internal working models—it can only create conditions more conducive to that work.

Broader Implications

Hazan and Shaver's research extends beyond individual therapy to illuminate patterns across families, organisations, and society.

The Intergenerational Transmission of Attachment Patterns

Attachment styles don't emerge randomly—they're shaped by caregiving experiences and then influence how individuals parent the next generation. A parent with anxious attachment may become emotionally enmeshed with their children, using them to regulate attachment anxiety rather than attuning to their independent needs. A parent with avoidant attachment may struggle to respond to children's emotional bids, inadvertently teaching them that attachment needs will be dismissed. A parent with unresolved trauma may provide the frightening-or-frightened caregiving that produces disorganised attachment. This is how intergenerational trauma transmits: not mystically, but through the specific relationship patterns that attachment research documents.

Romantic Relationship Selection and Maintenance

The research helps explain patterns of partner selection that often puzzle observers—and survivors themselves. People tend to choose partners whose attachment style complements (or collides with) their own in predictable ways. Anxious individuals may be drawn to avoidant partners (whose emotional distance triggers pursuit) or to narcissistic partners whose initial intensity feels like the connection they crave. These matches often produce relationship distress but feel compellingly "right" at an implicit level because they activate familiar internal working models. Understanding attachment can help individuals recognise these patterns and make more conscious choices.

Workplace and Organisational Dynamics

Attachment patterns don't disappear when people enter professional settings. The anxiously attached employee may become preoccupied with supervisors' approval, overwork to prevent perceived rejection, and show hypervigilance about workplace relationships. The avoidantly attached employee may struggle with collaboration, resist mentorship, and maintain emotional distance from colleagues. Leaders with insecure attachment may create organisational cultures that replicate their attachment dynamics—anxious leaders demanding constant reassurance from subordinates, avoidant leaders creating emotionally cold environments, narcissistic leaders seeking supply from their organisations. Attachment-informed management can design practices that support employees across attachment styles.

Dating Culture and Technology

Modern dating apps and social media have created unprecedented conditions for attachment dynamics. The abundance of apparent alternatives may activate avoidant tendencies (why commit when someone "better" might be a swipe away?). The gamification of romantic pursuit may intensify anxious dynamics (obsessive checking for matches and messages). The curated self-presentation of social media may particularly advantage narcissistic individuals while disadvantaging those with authentic-but-imperfect presentations. Understanding attachment can help individuals navigate these environments more consciously.

Legal and Policy Considerations

Family courts making custody and visitation decisions can apply attachment frameworks. Children need consistent access to attachment figures; disruption of established attachment bonds causes measurable harm. When one parent has provided sensitive, responsive caregiving while the other has been unavailable, neglectful, or abusive, attachment research supports prioritising the child's established secure attachment. Domestic violence cases can be informed by understanding that victims' difficulty leaving reflects attachment biology, not preference for abuse—a distinction with legal implications for credibility assessments and protective order compliance.

Public Health and Prevention

Viewing attachment through a public health lens suggests that promoting secure attachment is a high-return population intervention. Programs that support parental sensitivity—home visiting, parenting education, treatment of parental mental health issues, reduction of family stress—can shift attachment patterns in the next generation. Early childhood interventions that provide consistent, responsive caregiving to at-risk children can partially buffer the effects of inadequate parenting. Investment in attachment security may prevent downstream costs in mental health treatment, relationship dysfunction, and intergenerational transmission of trauma.

Limitations and Considerations

No research is without limitations, and responsible engagement with Hazan and Shaver's work requires acknowledging several important caveats.

Self-report methodology has inherent limitations. Hazan and Shaver's original studies relied on participants' descriptions of their own attachment styles and relationship experiences. Self-report can be affected by defensiveness (particularly for avoidant individuals who may minimise relationship importance), current mood, relationship status, and social desirability concerns. Later researchers developed interview-based assessments (the Adult Attachment Interview) and more nuanced self-report measures (the Experiences in Close Relationships scale) to address some limitations.

Three categories oversimplify continuous dimensions. The original three-category model (secure, anxious, avoidant) doesn't capture the full range of attachment variation. Subsequent research suggests that attachment is better understood as two continuous dimensions—anxiety about abandonment and avoidance of intimacy—rather than discrete categories. Many individuals don't fit neatly into one category, and attachment can vary across relationships and life circumstances.

Cultural context shapes attachment expression. Hazan and Shaver's research was conducted primarily with North American participants. Attachment may be universal, but its expression varies across cultures. Behaviours that appear "avoidant" in Western contexts may reflect culturally appropriate emotional restraint in other settings. The distribution of attachment styles varies across cultures, suggesting that cultural values shape attachment patterns beyond individual caregiving experiences.

Attachment stability is moderate, not absolute. While attachment patterns show meaningful stability across time, they're not immutable. Significant life events—new relationships, therapy, trauma, loss—can shift attachment. This is actually hopeful news for those seeking change, but it also means that a single assessment provides a snapshot, not a permanent classification.

Historical Context

The 1987 publication of "Romantic Love Conceptualized as an Attachment Process" came at a crucial juncture in psychological science. Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby beginning in the 1950s and empirically validated by Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation research in the 1960s-70s, had transformed understanding of infant development but remained largely confined to developmental psychology. Adult relationship research proceeded along separate tracks—studying passionate love, companionate love, exchange processes, and commitment—without integration with developmental frameworks.

Hazan and Shaver's insight was recognising that romantic love might be "the adult version" of infant attachment. This wasn't merely an analogy; they proposed that the same behavioural system, shaped by evolution to keep infants close to protective caregivers, reactivates in adulthood to bond romantic partners. The paper synthesised Bowlby's theoretical framework with Ainsworth's empirical categories, translating both into adult relationship contexts.

Their methodology was innovative for academic research. Rather than recruiting college students in psychology classes, they published a "love quiz" in the Rocky Mountain News (Denver) and The Record (Denver alternative weekly), collecting responses from a broader, more demographically diverse sample of adults actively reflecting on their romantic lives. This approach prefigured later research using internet surveys and dating app data.

The paper's influence has been enormous. Adult attachment became a major research field, generating thousands of studies on topics ranging from couple communication and conflict resolution to grief and loss, psychotherapy process, religious belief, leadership behaviour, and workplace dynamics. The Experiences in Close Relationships (ECR) scale, developed by Brennan, Clark, and Shaver (1998) based on this foundational work, has become one of the most widely used measures in relationship research. Major journals dedicated to attachment research have been established, and attachment frameworks inform clinical practice across therapeutic modalities.

Hazan continued this work at Cornell University's Adult Attachment Laboratory, investigating the processes by which adult bonds form and function. Shaver, at the University of California, Davis, co-edited all three editions of the Handbook of Attachment, the definitive reference work for the field. Together, they launched a research program that continues to illuminate how early experiences shape adult relationships—and how understanding these patterns opens possibilities for change.

Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process

APA Citation