Schulze, L., Dziobek, I., Vater, A., Heekeren, H., Wüstenberg, T., & Roepke, S. (2013) | References

What This Research Found

The 2013 study by Schulze and colleagues represents a watershed moment in narcissism research—the first neuroimaging study to demonstrate that narcissistic personality disorder involves measurable structural abnormalities in the brain. Using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis of MRI scans, the researchers compared 34 patients with clinically diagnosed NPD to 34 matched healthy controls and found striking differences.

Reduced grey matter in empathy-critical regions. The study identified significantly reduced grey matter volume in two key brain regions: the left anterior insula and the rostral anterior cingulate cortex. These regions are not randomly selected features—they represent the core neural infrastructure supporting emotional empathy and compassion. The anterior insula translates bodily sensations into felt emotional experience; the anterior cingulate helps generate compassionate responses to others' suffering. With reduced tissue in these areas, the neural substrate for emotional resonance is structurally compromised.

Direct correlation between structure and function. Perhaps the study's most important finding was the correlation between grey matter volume and measured empathy. Using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, the researchers demonstrated that the smaller the anterior insula, the lower the person's capacity for emotional empathy. This is not a vague association—it is a direct relationship between brain structure and the observable empathy deficits that characterise narcissism clinically.

Hardware problem, not just software. Before this study, narcissistic empathy deficits could be attributed to defensive psychological structures, learned behaviour patterns, or simple unwillingness to engage empathically. Schulze's research changed the picture: narcissists appear to have reduced neural hardware for empathy—actual tissue reduction in regions required for feeling what others feel. The narcissist watching your suffering without being moved is not merely choosing indifference; their brain may lack the physical infrastructure to create the visceral experience of your pain.

The vigilant brain phenomenon. The structural findings fit within a broader picture of what researchers call the "vigilant brain" in narcissism. Despite presenting as supremely confident, narcissists show elevated physiological stress responses to ego threats and chronic baseline hyperarousal. The reduced anterior cingulate grey matter may contribute to this pattern—impaired ability to regulate emotional responses and monitor conflicts between self-perception and reality. This chronic hyperarousal involves elevated cortisol levels and amygdala hyperreactivity, creating a nervous system perpetually primed for threat even while the individual presents an image of invulnerability.

How This Research Is Used in the Book

Schulze's study appears throughout Narcissus and the Child as foundational evidence for the neurobiological basis of narcissistic empathy deficits. The research is cited in five chapters, each drawing on different implications of the findings.

In Chapter 4: What Causes Narcissism?, the study establishes the neurobiological foundation of narcissistic vulnerability:

"The anterior insula, which translates bodily states into felt emotions and enables empathic resonance, shows reduced grey matter volume and blunted activation during empathy tasks. The narcissist can read people acutely, and know why they're suffocating, or drowning, while remaining unmoved by their suffering."

The chapter also synthesises Schulze's findings with Kernberg's and Kohut's psychoanalytic models:

"Modern neuro-imaging validates both models: the 'vigilant brain' in chronic defensive alert (Kernberg's defence) coexists with structural deficits in empathy circuitry (Kohut's arrested development). Both pathways—emotional neglect (Kohut) versus active hostility (Kernberg)—can produce similar outcomes."

In Chapter 7: The Architecture of the Narcissistic Brain, the study explains the structural basis of the "Translator" dysfunction:

"In narcissistic personality disorder, this Translator is also badly broken. MRI studies reveal significantly reduced grey matter volume in the anterior insula of individuals with NPD. This is hardware damage beyond mere software malfunction—actual tissue reduction in the structure responsible for translating body states into feelings. This region has atrophied through prolonged lack of use."

In Chapter 11: Neurological Contagion, Schulze's research explains the narcissist's mirror neuron deficit:

"Narcissists have impaired mirror neuron function. They can cognitively recognise emotions but do not automatically simulate them. When you express pain to a narcissist, their brain does not generate the corresponding pain response that would motivate compassionate response. Your experience remains abstract information rather than felt reality."

In Chapter 20: Field Guide, the research grounds practical advice in neurobiological reality:

"Narcissistic personality disorder involves hardware problems. The brain structures for empathy are atrophied. The circuits for updating behaviour based on feedback malfunction. The networks that should shift from self-focus to external engagement are locked. You cannot talk someone into empathy when the neural architecture for empathy is gone."

In Chapter 21: Breaking the Spell, the study explains the intractability of narcissistic pathology:

"Brain imaging studies confirm measurable differences in narcissistic brains. Schulze and colleagues found reduced grey matter in areas associated with empathy, particularly the left anterior insula and rostral anterior cingulate cortex. The narcissist's inability to feel genuine empathy is neurological, not just psychological."

Why This Matters for Survivors

For those who have experienced narcissistic abuse—from parents, partners, or others—Schulze's research answers questions that may have haunted you for years.

Why couldn't they feel my pain? You may have spent countless hours trying to explain your hurt, crying, describing in detail how their actions affected you. Each time, you hoped this would be the moment they finally understood. But nothing changed. Schulze's research explains why: the brain region that should translate your suffering into a felt experience in them—that should create the discomfort motivating compassionate response—is structurally reduced. Your pain registered as information, not as shared experience. No amount of explaining can create neural tissue that isn't there.

Why did my love never reach them? Survivors often believe that if they just loved enough, gave enough, were patient enough, the narcissist would finally open their heart. But the anterior insula doesn't respond to quantities of love—it responds to interoceptive signals from the body. If the structure is compromised, the processing is impaired regardless of how much emotional input you provide. Your love was real; their capacity to receive it neurobiologically may not have been.

Why did they seem to enjoy my suffering? Some narcissists appear not just unmoved by but actively pleased by their victim's distress. With impaired anterior insula function, others' emotions may register primarily as useful information about control and power rather than as experiences requiring compassionate response. Seeing you suffer may provide narcissistic supply (evidence of impact, importance, power) without triggering the normal empathic discomfort that would inhibit further harm.

Why is change so unlikely? Understanding the structural basis of empathy deficits helps explain why hoping for change is usually futile. The narcissist would need to literally build grey matter in regions that show reduced volume—a process requiring years of consistent, intensive therapeutic work to even attempt, with no guarantee of success. The neural infrastructure for empathy wasn't just never developed; in some cases, it may have atrophied. Neuroplasticity offers theoretical hope, but the practical barriers are immense. Unlike survivors of narcissistic abuse who are motivated by their suffering to pursue healing, narcissists rarely experience sufficient distress to sustain the difficult work of neural rewiring.

Why was there nothing I could do? Survivors often blame themselves for failing to reach the narcissist. Schulze's research provides neurobiological absolution: you cannot create empathic response in someone whose brain lacks the structure to generate it. This was never about you not being enough—it was about a fundamental deficit in their neural hardware.

Clinical Implications

For psychiatrists, psychologists, and trauma-informed healthcare providers, Schulze's research has significant implications for assessment and treatment.

Recalibrate expectations about empathy cultivation. Therapeutic approaches attempting to build empathy in NPD patients face a structural challenge. Unlike deficits that reflect defensive inhibition of intact capacity, the anterior insula findings suggest reduced neural substrate for affective empathy. Treatment protocols may need to focus less on "unlocking" hidden empathy and more on building behavioural approximations of empathic response—cognitive strategies for recognising and responding appropriately to others' emotions even without the visceral felt sense.

Distinguish cognitive from affective empathy targets. Schulze's findings specifically implicate affective empathy—the felt, visceral sharing of others' emotional states. Cognitive empathy (understanding what others feel) appears to be more intact in narcissism, which explains how narcissists can be skilled social manipulators while lacking compassion. Treatment may find more traction strengthening cognitive empathy skills and building behavioural prosocial responses than attempting to cultivate affective resonance that may be structurally impaired.

Consider implications for therapeutic relationship. The therapist working with an NPD patient should understand that the patient may cognitively comprehend the therapist's emotional states without affectively sharing them. This has implications for transference-based work: the patient may intellectually understand interpretations about relational patterns without the accompanying emotional experience that drives change in other patients. Therapists may need to rely more heavily on behavioural homework and consequences than on insight and emotional processing.

Inform prognosis discussions carefully. When families or partners seek information about prognosis, Schulze's research provides context: NPD involves structural brain differences, not merely learned patterns that can be unlearned. This doesn't mean all hope is lost—neuroplasticity is real—but it calibrates expectations. Change, if it occurs, will likely be slow, partial, and require extraordinary motivation from a patient whose condition makes sustaining motivation extremely difficult.

Consider for forensic and legal consultation. When consulted in legal proceedings involving narcissistic abuse, clinicians can reference Schulze's research to explain why victims' expectations of empathic response were neurobiologically unrealistic, why "teaching" the narcissist about the impact of their behaviour was unlikely to succeed, and why the narcissist's claimed remorse may represent cognitive understanding without affective experience.

Assess comorbidities that might compound deficits. The anterior insula is implicated in multiple conditions. Patients with NPD comorbid with alexithymia, substance use disorders, or other conditions affecting interoception may show particularly severe affective empathy impairment. Assessment should include interoceptive awareness measures to help characterise the specific empathy profile.

Broader Implications

Schulze's research extends beyond individual clinical encounters to illuminate patterns across relationships, families, and institutions.

Understanding the Narcissistic Family System

Within families headed by narcissistic parents, Schulze's findings help explain patterns that survivors describe. The narcissistic parent's reduced anterior insula function means children's emotional states do not register viscerally. The child's distress is information to be managed, not suffering to be felt. This explains why narcissistic parents can witness their children's pain without the gut-level discomfort that would normally inhibit parental behaviour causing such pain. The golden child and scapegoat dynamics make neurobiological sense: roles are assigned based on what serves the narcissist's needs, and the children's actual emotional experiences are largely invisible to a parent whose anterior insula cannot translate those experiences into felt reality. This chronic invalidation can cause Complex PTSD in children who never receive the emotional attunement they need for healthy development.

Intergenerational Transmission

Children of narcissists often wonder whether they are doomed to become narcissists themselves. Schulze's research provides nuanced perspective. The structural brain differences associated with NPD involve both heritable vulnerabilities and developmental factors—the anterior insula develops through attuned relational experiences that may be absent in narcissistic families. A child raised without adequate emotional mirroring may develop reduced anterior insula function not because of genetic destiny but because the neural circuits for empathy require appropriate developmental input to form properly. This intergenerational transmission of empathy deficits suggests that breaking the cycle requires not just avoiding abusive parenting behaviours but actively providing the attuned relational experiences that build empathy circuitry.

Narcissism in Leadership

The finding that narcissists retain cognitive empathy while lacking affective empathy has implications for understanding narcissistic leaders. Such individuals can be skilled at reading people—understanding what others want, fear, and need—while being unmoved by the suffering their decisions cause. They may excel at strategic social navigation while creating toxic environments that damage those beneath them through coercive control and systematic manipulation. The anterior insula deficit explains how corporate executives, political leaders, or institutional heads can understand their impact intellectually while remaining utterly indifferent to it emotionally.

Implications for Partner Selection and Relationship Education

Understanding that empathy deficits in narcissism reflect structural brain differences, not choices that can be changed through love or patience, has implications for relationship education. Programs helping people identify and avoid narcissistic partners could incorporate this neurobiological framework: certain empathy deficits may not be fixable, and recognising this early can prevent years of futile effort. The research validates the survivor's ultimate conclusion: no amount of explaining, loving, or waiting would have made a difference.

The Limits of Restorative Justice

In contexts where narcissistic offenders are required to face their victims—restorative justice programs, family therapy, mediation—Schulze's research suggests caution. Such processes assume the offender can feel the impact of their behaviour when confronted with victim suffering. If the anterior insula is structurally compromised, this assumption may be false. The narcissistic offender may perform appropriate responses without the internal experience that makes such processes meaningful. Victim-facing interventions may serve the victim's needs without necessarily creating genuine accountability in the narcissist. Survivors seeking closure through such processes should understand that the affect regulation deficits documented by Schulze may prevent the emotional reckoning they hope to witness.

Methodological Considerations

Understanding the study's methodology helps assess its significance and limitations.

Sample characteristics. The study examined 34 patients meeting DSM-IV criteria for narcissistic personality disorder, diagnosed through structured clinical interview. Patients were recruited from psychiatric clinics, meaning they represent help-seeking individuals—a minority of those with NPD. The findings may or may not generalise to non-clinical narcissists who never seek treatment.

Control matching. Healthy controls were matched for age, gender, and education, controlling for major confounds. However, the study could not control for all possible differences between people who develop NPD and those who don't—early adversity, other personality traits, or environmental factors that might independently affect brain structure.

Cross-sectional design. The study compared groups at one time point. This means it cannot determine whether reduced grey matter causes NPD, results from NPD-related patterns of brain use, or reflects some third factor that contributes to both. The correlation between structure and function (less grey matter = less empathy) supports a causal role, but longitudinal research would be needed to establish developmental trajectory.

Specificity of regions. The anterior insula and rostral anterior cingulate cortex are involved in multiple functions beyond empathy. Grey matter reduction in these areas could affect other capacities as well. The study's focus on empathy measures provides strong support for empathy-specific implications, but other functions may also be affected.

Group-level findings. As with all neuroimaging research, these are statistical differences between groups. Individual narcissists may vary considerably. Some may have relatively preserved anterior insula volume; others may have more severe reductions. The findings establish a general pattern, not a diagnostic test for individual cases.

Historical Context

Published in 2013 in the Journal of Psychiatric Research, Schulze's study appeared at a moment when neuroimaging research into personality disorders was maturing but narcissism remained understudied compared to other Cluster B conditions.

Extensive research had documented brain differences in antisocial personality disorder and psychopathy—conditions characterised by similar empathy deficits. The amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and limbic systems had been repeatedly implicated. But narcissistic personality disorder, despite being one of the most interpersonally destructive conditions, had received far less neuroimaging attention.

Schulze's study helped fill this gap. By demonstrating structural differences specifically in empathy-critical regions, it connected narcissism research to the broader neuroscience of empathy and prosocial behaviour. The finding that grey matter reduction correlated with measured empathy deficits provided the mechanistic link between structure and clinical presentation that the field needed.

The study has been cited over 400 times and remains foundational for neurobiological models of narcissism. Subsequent research has largely supported and extended its findings, examining functional as well as structural differences, exploring the developmental origins of these abnormalities, and investigating whether interventions can modify them.

For survivors of narcissistic abuse, the study provided something perhaps more important than scientific validation: neurobiological permission to stop trying. If the brain hardware for empathy is structurally reduced, then the survivor's inability to make the narcissist "feel" their pain was never a failure of love, communication, or persistence. It was a neurobiological impossibility.

Connecting to Related Research

Schulze's findings fit within a broader network of research on narcissism and empathy neuroscience:

Nenadic (2015) extended structural findings to include the medial prefrontal cortex, involved in self-referential processing
Fan (2011) documented functional differences in how narcissistic brains process others' emotions, showing reduced activation in empathy networks
Ritter (2011) explored the cognitive-affective empathy distinction, showing narcissists retain theory of mind while lacking emotional resonance
Hepper (2014) demonstrated that narcissists can temporarily activate empathy when specifically instructed, suggesting motivational as well as structural factors

Together, these studies paint a picture of narcissism as involving both structural deficits in empathy hardware and motivational failures to deploy whatever empathy capacity remains.

Gray matter abnormalities in patients with narcissistic personality disorder

APA Citation