Klein, V., Li, S., & Wood, D. (2023) | References

What This Research Found

Klein, Li, and Wood's 2023 study represents a landmark in gaslighting research: one of the first large-scale empirical investigations of reality manipulation in romantic relationships. By collecting detailed accounts from sixty-five survivors, the researchers moved beyond clinical observation to systematically document how gaslighting operates, what it does to victims, and how recovery unfolds.

The mechanism of gaslighting: Participants described a consistent pattern. Gaslighting typically began with small distortions—disagreements about minor matters like where they agreed to go for dinner or what was said about holiday plans. One participant recalled: "He'd tell me I'd agreed to things I knew I hadn't. Small things at first... When I'd correct him, he'd look genuinely hurt that I didn't remember. That's when I started questioning my memory." The manipulation started small enough to seem like normal miscommunication before expanding to encompass the victim's entire perception of reality. By the time the distortion became severe, victims had already learned to doubt themselves.

Coercive control connections: A crucial finding emerged about gaslighters' motivations and methods. The study found that gaslighters who were motivated by a desire to control engaged in a wider variety of coercive tactics, including setting rules, verbal abuse, property damage, and threats. Gaslighting rarely appeared alone; it was typically one weapon in a broader arsenal of manipulation. This pattern helps survivors understand why their experience often included multiple forms of abuse—the reality distortion served to obscure the broader control.

Identity erosion: Perhaps the study's most striking findings concern what gaslighting does to the self. Most subjects reported that they felt as though they had lost part of themselves, that their self-concept had "shrunken," or that they'd become a "shell of themselves." The researchers documented this identity dissolution across nearly every account. One participant told them: "Within a few years, I was keeping a journal trying to track reality because I couldn't trust myself. But then he told me the journal itself proved I was obsessive and paranoid. I stopped trusting my own documentation of reality." The gaslighter had colonised even the victim's attempts to maintain her grip on truth.

Career and social consequences: Gaslighting's effects extended far beyond the relationship itself. The study documented how accusations of incompetence—characteristic of gaslighting—combined with isolation from friends and family to devastate careers and social networks. One woman reported: "I'd been on partner track, but I couldn't make decisions anymore. I'd second-guess everything. In meetings, I'd stay silent rather than risk being wrong. My confidence drained away." The systematic destruction of self-worth and reality-testing capacity infected every domain of survivors' lives.

The gradual recognition: The research confirmed what clinicians have long observed: recognition of gaslighting rarely arrives as a single moment of clarity. Instead, survivors described a gradual process, often requiring external validation. "Naming it felt like putting on glasses after years of being told your vision was fine," one participant explained. Yet even after recognition, leaving proved extraordinarily difficult. Financial abuse, exhaustion from years of reality manipulation, and the sheer difficulty of trusting one's judgement about whether to leave created barriers that took months or years to overcome.

Social reconnection and recovery: Perhaps the study's most important finding for survivors and clinicians concerns recovery. Despite reports of increased mistrust, socialising was the activity most reported in response to questions about recovery. Engaging or re-engaging with others helped many survivors regain a sense of self. The finding seems paradoxical: gaslighting destroys trust, yet recovery requires trusting others enough to connect. But the logic becomes clear: the gaslighter isolated the victim and became their sole source of reality validation. Recovery requires building new sources of validation—trusted friends, therapists, support groups—who can confirm that the survivor's perceptions are real. "I had to learn to trust myself again from scratch," one survivor explained. "For years, I'd ask friends: 'Did I say that? Do you remember it this way?' The capacity to trust one's own mind had to be rebuilt deliberately."

How This Research Is Used in the Book

Klein et al.'s groundbreaking study appears in two chapters of Narcissus and the Child, providing empirical foundation for understanding both the devastating effects of gaslighting and the path to recovery.

In Chapter 16: The Gaslit Self, the study illuminates what gaslighting does to survivors' sense of identity and reality:

"In 2023, researchers Klein, Li, and Wood conducted one of the first large-scale qualitative studies of gaslighting survivors, collecting detailed accounts from sixty-five people who had experienced reality manipulation in romantic relationships. Their findings illuminate patterns that appear across nearly every survivor's story."

The chapter draws extensively on participant accounts to document the progression from initial small distortions through complete reality colonisation. The description of survivors keeping journals to track reality—only to have those journals weaponised as "proof" of paranoia—captures how thoroughly gaslighting can undermine even deliberate attempts to maintain one's grip on truth. The study's finding that most survivors felt they had become "shells of themselves" or that their self-concept had "shrunken" provides empirical validation for the identity erosion that survivors describe.

In Chapter 21: Breaking the Spell, the study provides crucial guidance for the recovery process:

"Survivors in the Klein et al. study described this loss of self in vivid terms. One participant recalled standing in a supermarket, paralysed: 'I literally didn't know what I liked to eat anymore. For years, I bought what he wanted, cooked what he demanded, ate whatever wouldn't trigger his criticism. Standing in front of the cereal aisle, I started crying because I couldn't remember if I liked corn flakes or if that was him.'"

This passage illustrates how completely gaslighting can erase identity—the survivor had lost knowledge not just of external reality but of her own preferences. The chapter uses Klein et al.'s research to normalise this profound disorientation while also pointing toward recovery: the finding that social reconnection proved essential for rebuilding identity offers concrete direction for survivors wondering how to begin healing.

Why This Matters for Survivors

If you have experienced gaslighting, Klein et al.'s research offers something precious: scientific validation that what happened to you was real and that what you experienced is shared by others.

You are not alone. Sixty-five survivors described experiences remarkably similar to yours—the small distortions that grew into complete reality colonisation, the gradual erosion of confidence, the feeling of becoming unrecognisable to yourself. When you describe feeling like you "lost yourself" or became a "shell" of who you were, you are not exaggerating. You are describing a documented pattern that appears across gaslighting survivors. The study confirms that your experience, however isolating it felt, connects you to a community of survivors who understand.

Your "confusion" was manufactured. The study documents how gaslighting systematically creates cognitive dissonance and self-doubt. When you couldn't make decisions, when you second-guessed everything, when you stayed silent rather than risk being wrong—these were not personal failures. They were the predictable effects of sustained reality manipulation. The confusion was not evidence of your inadequacy; it was evidence of the abuse. Understanding this distinction is crucial for releasing the shame that gaslighting instills.

Your difficulty leaving makes sense. Klein et al. document how financial abuse and the sheer exhaustion of years of reality manipulation created barriers that took months or years to overcome. If you stayed longer than you think you should have, or if you're still there, the study explains why: gaslighting destroys the very capacity you would need to recognise the abuse and trust your judgement about leaving. You are not weak for staying; you were systematically disabled from leaving.

Recovery is possible but takes time. The study found that rebuilding identity—rediscovering preferences, learning to make decisions again, restoring the capacity to trust one's own mind—required deliberate effort over years rather than months. If you're frustrated by the pace of your recovery, the research validates that this timeline is normal. You are not recovering slowly; you are recovering at the pace that recovery from gaslighting actually requires.

Connection heals, even when trust is shattered. Perhaps the study's most counterintuitive finding: despite increased mistrust, social reconnection proved essential for recovery. This doesn't mean trusting everyone or trusting quickly. It means gradually building connections with people who can serve the validation function the gaslighter destroyed—confirming your memories, affirming your perceptions, helping you rebuild confidence that your mind can be trusted. Isolation may feel safer, but it cannot heal the wound that gaslighting inflicted. The damage was relational, and the repair must be relational too.

You can rediscover yourself. The survivor who couldn't remember whether she liked corn flakes eventually learned her own preferences again. The process was painful—standing in supermarket aisles trying foods, noticing what her body actually enjoyed versus what she had been told to like. But it was possible. The authentic self that gaslighting buried is not destroyed; it is waiting to be excavated. Klein et al.'s research shows that survivors do rebuild identity, do restore decision-making capacity, do learn to trust themselves again. The path is longer than anyone would choose, but it leads somewhere real.

Clinical Implications

For psychiatrists, psychologists, trauma therapists, and other mental health professionals, Klein et al.'s findings have direct implications for assessment, treatment planning, and therapeutic approach with gaslighting survivors.

Screen for the coercive control constellation. The study found that control-motivated gaslighters engaged in broader patterns of coercive tactics. When patients present with gaslighting-related symptoms, clinicians should assess for the full spectrum of coercive control: isolation from friends and family, financial abuse, monitoring and surveillance, threats, property damage, and restrictive rules. Gaslighting rarely appears alone; it is typically embedded in a broader pattern of domination. Comprehensive assessment ensures treatment addresses the full scope of abuse.

Expect profound identity disturbance. Klein et al. documented that most survivors felt they had lost themselves, that their self-concept had "shrunken," or that they had become "shells" of their former selves. This identity erosion may manifest in therapy as difficulty identifying preferences, paralysis around decisions, inability to answer questions about what they want or feel, and persistent self-doubt even about mundane observations. These presentations reflect the abuse itself, not pre-existing pathology. Treatment must include identity reconstruction work—helping survivors rediscover preferences, rebuild decision-making capacity, and restore confidence in their own perceptions.

The therapeutic relationship serves a specific function. For patients whose reality was systematically manipulated, the therapeutic relationship itself becomes a corrective experience. The therapist serves as a stable external reference point—someone who believes the survivor's account, validates their perceptions, and does not shift the ground beneath their feet. This consistency is not just supportive; it is therapeutic. Clinicians should be aware that their reliability, their willingness to believe, and their refusal to gaslight (even unintentionally) are central to treatment.

Facilitate social reconnection carefully. The study found that social engagement was essential for recovery despite increased mistrust. Clinicians can help survivors identify potentially safe relationships, develop graduated trust-building strategies, and process the fear and hypervigilance that arise around connection. Group therapy with other gaslighting survivors may accelerate recognition and reduce isolation, though readiness must be assessed individually. The goal is not to push survivors into vulnerability before they're ready, but to help them understand that the path to recovery runs through connection, and to support them as they begin that journey.

Set realistic recovery timelines. Klein et al.'s findings confirm that recovery from gaslighting takes years rather than months. Clinicians working with managed care constraints must advocate for treatment duration that matches clinical need. Brief, protocol-driven treatments designed for single-incident trauma are inadequate for the deep identity reconstruction gaslighting requires. Survivors need to understand that their recovery timeline is normal; clinicians need to understand that advocating for appropriate treatment duration is part of the work.

Address the prefrontal-limbic dysregulation. Chronic gaslighting creates neurobiological changes: hypervigilance, impaired reality-testing, compromised decision-making capacity. Body-based interventions—somatic experiencing, EMDR, sensorimotor psychotherapy—may be necessary alongside cognitive approaches. The damage was physiological, not just psychological; treatment must address both levels.

Validate the career and social consequences. The study documented how gaslighting devastated careers and social networks. Survivors may present not only with relationship trauma but with professional setbacks, financial difficulties, and social isolation. Clinicians should understand these as consequences of the abuse, not separate problems, and address them within the trauma framework.

Broader Implications

Klein et al.'s research extends beyond individual therapy to illuminate patterns across relationships, institutions, and society.

Understanding Gaslighting as Part of Coercive Control

The study's finding that control-motivated gaslighters engaged in broader coercive tactics positions gaslighting within Evan Stark's framework of coercive control. Gaslighting is not a standalone phenomenon but a specific mechanism that serves broader domination. By undermining the victim's capacity to perceive reality accurately, gaslighting disables the cognitive infrastructure needed to recognise other forms of abuse, resist control, or leave the relationship.

This understanding has legal implications. As jurisdictions increasingly criminalise coercive control, Klein et al.'s documentation of how gaslighting functions within control patterns provides empirical support for recognising psychological abuse. The study's detailed accounts of reality manipulation, identity erosion, and impaired functioning offer the kind of evidence courts need to understand that invisible abuse produces real harm.

The Gendered Dimensions of Gaslighting

While Klein et al.'s study included survivors across gender identities, the dynamics of gaslighting intersect with broader patterns of gendered power. Women's perceptions have historically been dismissed as irrational, emotional, or hysterical—a cultural context that gaslighters exploit. When a male partner tells a female victim she's "too sensitive" or "imagining things," he draws on cultural scripts that position women's perceptions as inherently unreliable.

This context suggests that gaslighting awareness must include cultural analysis. Survivors healing from gaslighting are simultaneously healing from exploitation of misogynistic frameworks. Clinicians should be aware that for female survivors especially, rebuilding trust in one's perceptions may require addressing internalised messages about women's rationality and credibility.

Implications for Relationship Education

Klein et al.'s documentation of how gaslighting begins—small distortions about minor matters that gradually expand—has implications for prevention. Relationship education programmes could teach recognition of early warning signs: a partner who consistently contradicts your memory about small things, who suggests your perceptions are unreliable, who responds to concerns with accusations about your sensitivity. Early recognition, before the manipulation has become pervasive, offers the best chance for intervention.

The study also suggests the importance of maintaining external connections. Gaslighting thrives on isolation; victims whose reality is validated by friends and family are harder to manipulate. Relationship education could emphasise the importance of maintaining friendships and family ties even within romantic relationships—not as a sign of inadequate commitment but as a healthy practice that preserves access to external reality validation.

Workplace and Institutional Applications

While Klein et al. focused on romantic relationships, their findings have implications for workplace gaslighting. The mechanisms are similar: systematic reality distortion that undermines the victim's confidence in their own perceptions, leading to impaired performance and decision-making. Organisations can implement protections: robust documentation systems, written confirmation of verbal agreements, clear and consistent performance standards, and multiple channels for raising concerns about manipulation.

HR professionals assessing workplace complaints should understand that employees who present as confused, uncertain, or unable to clearly articulate what happened may be experiencing workplace gaslighting. Their presentation reflects the abuse, not unreliability. Creating environments where employees can safely document and report reality distortion serves both individual protection and organisational health.

Digital Age Considerations

The study's finding that survivors kept journals to track reality, only to have those journals weaponised, has particular resonance in the digital age. Text messages, emails, and recorded conversations can serve the same documentary function—and can be similarly weaponised. ("You're so paranoid you screenshot everything I say.") Survivors navigating documentation in the digital age face both new tools and new risks.

Additionally, online support communities can serve the social reconnection function Klein et al. identified as essential for recovery. Forums like PsychopathFree.com and Reddit's r/NarcissisticAbuse provide spaces where survivors can reality-check their experiences with others who understand—a digital version of asking friends, "Did that really happen the way I remember?" These communities, while not substitutes for professional treatment, can provide accessible validation that accelerates recognition and reduces isolation.

Limitations and Considerations

Klein et al.'s study, while groundbreaking, has important limitations that inform how we apply its findings.

Retrospective accounts. Participants described gaslighting experiences after the fact, sometimes years later. Memory itself—the very faculty that gaslighting attacks—shapes these accounts. Survivors may have difficulty accurately recalling details, may have reinterpreted experiences in light of subsequent learning, or may have consolidated multiple incidents into representative patterns. While this limitation is inherent to studying gaslighting (one cannot prospectively identify gaslighting before it occurs), it suggests caution in treating every detail as precisely accurate even as overall patterns are validated.

Self-selected sample. Participants who volunteered for a study on gaslighting had already recognised themselves as having experienced it. The study therefore captures people who achieved recognition—potentially missing those who remain unaware they were gaslighted, those who minimise their experiences, or those whose gaslighting was so severe that participation would be retraumatising. The patterns identified may not represent the full spectrum of gaslighting experiences.

Romantic relationship focus. The study specifically examined gaslighting in romantic relationships, limiting direct applicability to family, workplace, or institutional contexts. While mechanisms likely overlap, the specific dynamics of intimate partner gaslighting—involving sexual and romantic dimensions, cohabitation, financial interdependence—may differ from gaslighting in other contexts. Clinicians and researchers should be cautious about generalising findings beyond romantic relationships.

Cultural considerations. The study's sample and methodology emerged from specific cultural contexts. How gaslighting manifests and is experienced may vary across cultures—particularly cultures with different norms about gender, authority, relationship hierarchy, and truth-telling. Concepts like "lost sense of self" assume particular Western frameworks of individual identity that may not translate directly cross-culturally.

Qualitative methodology. While qualitative research excels at capturing lived experience and generating hypotheses, it does not provide prevalence data, cannot establish causation, and findings depend on researcher interpretation. The patterns Klein et al. identified are suggestive rather than definitive and await confirmation through additional studies using diverse methodologies.

Historical Context

Klein, Li, and Wood's 2023 study arrived at a crucial moment in gaslighting's transition from clinical term to cultural keyword. While clinicians had documented gaslighting for decades, and popular psychology books had brought it to general audiences, rigorous empirical research remained sparse. The study addressed this gap by applying established qualitative methodology to systematic investigation of survivor experiences.

The term "gaslighting" had achieved extraordinary cultural penetration by 2023. Merriam-Webster named it Word of the Year in 2022, reflecting explosive growth in usage. Social media discussions, survivor communities, and popular culture had made the term familiar even to those without mental health backgrounds. This popularisation brought both benefits—increased recognition and validation—and risks—term dilution and potential weaponisation by actual gaslighters.

The research built on foundational work in related areas. Judith Herman's research on Complex PTSD and psychological trauma in captivity provided frameworks for understanding gaslighting's identity-eroding effects. Evan Stark's work on coercive control positioned gaslighting within broader patterns of domination. Robin Stern's clinical descriptions and Stephanie Sarkis's cataloguing of gaslighting tactics provided detailed accounts that Klein et al.'s empirical work could systematically investigate.

The study's appearance in Personal Relationships, a peer-reviewed academic journal, marked gaslighting's arrival as a legitimate subject of empirical investigation. Previous work had appeared largely in clinical literature, self-help books, or popular media; Klein et al.'s study subjected gaslighting to the rigorous methodology of relationship science. This positioning signals that gaslighting warrants serious academic attention and provides the kind of evidence that can inform clinical practice, legal proceedings, and policy development.

Connection to Narcissistic Abuse Recovery

Klein et al.'s research directly addresses the reality-distortion component of narcissistic abuse. While narcissistic abuse encompasses many dynamics—idealisation and devaluation cycles, trauma bonding, intermittent reinforcement, exploitation—gaslighting serves a specific function: it undermines the victim's capacity to accurately perceive the abuse.

The study's findings connect directly to recovery strategies covered elsewhere in the book. The difficulty recognising gaslighting explains why naming the abuse matters so much: "Putting on glasses after years of being told your vision was fine" describes the shift that occurs when survivors finally have language for their experience. The documentation strategies survivors employed—keeping journals, asking friends to confirm memories—anticipate the reality-testing approaches that clinicians recommend.

The finding that social reconnection proved essential despite increased mistrust illuminates the paradox survivors face: healing requires precisely what the abuse made terrifying. Establishing boundaries and pursuing no-contact protects survivors from further gaslighting but does not complete the healing. Recovery requires building new connections that can provide the validation function—and the study provides empirical support for this clinical intuition.

For survivors working on self-worth and self-compassion, Klein et al.'s documentation of how intelligent, capable people became paralysed and confused offers release from self-blame. The vulnerability lay in normal human trust and connection, not in personal weakness. Understanding this distinction is crucial for healing the shame that gaslighting installs.

The study's documentation of how identity reconstruction requires deliberate effort—trying foods to rediscover preferences, making small decisions to rebuild confidence—provides concrete guidance for survivors wondering how to begin. The authentic self was not destroyed but buried; Klein et al.'s participants demonstrate that it can be excavated, though the archaeological work takes time.

A Qualitative Analysis of Gaslighting in Romantic Relationships

APA Citation